Lista maestra de falacias lógicas Las falacias son argumentos falsos o engañosos, argumentos que no prueban nada. Las falacias parecen a menudo superficialmente sanas, y con demasiada frecuencia conservan inmenso poder de persuasión incluso después de haber sido claramente expuestas como falsas. Las falacias no siempre son deliberadas, pero un buen propósito académico es siempre identificar y desenmascarar falacias en argumentos. Tenga en cuenta que muchas de estas definiciones se superponen, pero el objetivo aquí es identificar las falacias contemporáneas y clásicas como se utilizan en el discurso de hoy. Se han hecho esfuerzos para evitar simples juegos de palabras (por ejemplo, Fallacists Fallacy, o el famoso Parodelo de los clásicos), o las denominadas quotfallacies de la lógica puramente formal o simbólica. No se hace reclamación al rigor quotacademic en este listado. Un argumento corrupto del logos, comenzando con una creencia preestablecida, un dogma, una doctrina, un versículo de la escritura, un quotfact o una conclusión y luego buscando cualquier argumento razonable o razonable Para racionalizarla, defenderla o justificarla. Ciertos ideólogos y fundamentalistas religiosos se enorgullecen de utilizar esta falacia como su principal método de razonamiento y algunos son incluso lo suficientemente honestos como para decirlo. Lo contrario de esta falacia es el tabú. Véase también Dos Verdades. Las Acciones tienen Consecuencias: La falacia contemporánea de una persona en el poder que describe falsamente un castigo o castigo impuesto como una consecuencia equivocada de otro acto negativo. Por ejemplo, el ethos de Dios, el Destino, el Destino o la Realidad en Sí Mismo. Un argumento corrupto del ethos, arrogando a uno mismo oa las reglas oa las leyes un ethos de inevitabilidad cósmica. Congelar hasta la muerte es una consecuencia natural de salir desnudo en un clima subzero, pero ir a la cárcel es un castigo por el robo de un banco, no una consecuencia natural, inevitable o inevitable, de robar un banco. No debe confundirse con el Argumento de las Consecuencias, que es muy diferente. Una falacia opuesta es la de la Licencia Moral. La falacia de intentar refutar un argumento atacando el carácter personal o la reputación de las oposiciones, usando un argumento negativo corrompido del ethos. El argumento Ad Hominem (también, quotPersonal attack, quotPoisoning the well. quot) P. ej. Es tan malvado que no se puede creer nada de lo que dice. Véase también lo que se dice en la Asociación. Lo contrario de esto es la falacia del Poder de la Estrella. También se aplica a los casos en los que la evidencia y los argumentos válidos que se oponen se echan a un lado sin comentarios o consideraciones, simplemente no vale la pena discutir, únicamente por la falta de poder, estatus o antecedentes propios de la persona que hace el argumento o porque el oponente no es Un miembro de un grupo de quotin, es decir quotYoud me entiende si usted era birmano, pero ya que no hay theres ninguna manera que puedo explicar a usted, quot o quotNobody pero una enfermera puede saber lo que una enfermera tiene que pasar through. quot el afectivo Fallacy (también The Romantic Fallacy): Una falacia de Pathos, que las emociones, los impulsos o quotfeelingsquot son en todos los casos autovalidación, autónomo y por encima de cualquier intención humana o acto de voluntad (los propios u otros) y son, por tanto, más allá Desafío o crítica. En esta falacia se argumenta: "Mis sentimientos son válidos, por lo tanto, no tienes derecho a criticar lo que digo o hago, ni cómo lo digo o lo hago". Esto último también es una falacia de estasis, confundir respuesta razonada o refutación con Devaluación personal, falta de respeto, prejuicio, fanatismo, sexismo, homofobia u hostilidad. Una forma groseramente sexista de la Falacia Afectiva es la conocida falacia cruda de que un falo no tiene conciencia, es decir, puesto que la sexualidad (particularmente masculina) es autovalidante y más allá del control voluntario, lo que uno hace con él no puede ser controlado y no está abierto A la crítica, una aserción abrazada con entusiasmo y extendida más allá del género masculino en ciertas reificaciones de la teoría académica contemporánea. Véase también, Jugar con la emoción. Frente a esta falacia se encuentra la falacia de la emoción escogida (gracias al erudito Marc Lawson por identificar esta falacia), en la que se afirma falsamente un control voluntario previo y fiable sobre las reacciones afectivas internas propias del nivel quotígual. Relacionado con esto último está la antigua falacia del Angelismo, afirmando falsamente que uno es capaz de un razonamiento semiótico-objetivo, sin emoción, o pretendiendo colocarse sobre toda emoción. Véase también Mortificación. Sopa del alfabeto: Una falacia implícita corrupta del etos en la cual una persona inhabilita abusivamente los acrónimos, las abreviaturas, los números de la forma y el quotshop insano del arcángulo habla principalmente para probar a una audiencia que él / ella quotspeaks su languagequot y es quotone de themquot y para cerrar, O impresionar a los forasteros. P. ej. No es nada raro que un K-12 con ASD sea tanto GT como LD. Tengo un DX de veinte minutos en Q-so 15 con un Zed-S1 y un par de LU2s aunque el QR-Nancy tenía 20 más de S9quot Espero que siga viendo mi BAQ en mi LES hasta el día en que consiga mi DD214.quot Véase también, Name Calling. La apelación al cierre. La falacia contemporánea de que un argumento, un punto de vista, una acción o una conclusión, no importa cuán cuestionable debe ser aceptada como definitiva o de lo contrario el punto permanecerá inestable, lo que es impensable porque los afectados se negará quotclosure. quot Esta falacia falsamente reifica un término especializado de Gestalt Psicología (cierre) al tiempo que se niega a reconocer la verdad innegable de que algunos puntos permanecerán inestables, tal vez para siempre. P. ej. Que la sociedad sería protegida, el crimen sería disuadido y la justicia servida si nosotros lo condenamos a la vida sin libertad condicional, pero necesitamos ejecutarle para proporcionar algún cierre. quot Véase también Argumento de la Ignorancia y Argumento de las Consecuencias. Lo contrario de esta falacia es la Parálisis del Análisis. El Apelo al Cielo. (También, Argumentum ad Coelum, Deus Vult, Gott mit Uns, Manifest Destiny, American Exceptionalism, o el Pacto Especial). Una antigua falacia extremadamente peligrosa (argumento engañoso del ethos) afirmando que Dios (o la Historia, o un poder superior) ha ordenado o ungido, apoya o aprueba su propio punto de vista o acciones, de modo que no se requiere justificación adicional y no se plantea ningún desafío serio posible. (Por ejemplo, Dios me ordenó matar a mis hijos, o quot o necesitamos quitarles su tierra, ya que Dios o el Destino Manifiesto o el Destino o el Cielo nos lo han dado como nuestro.) Un individuo privado que afirma seriamente esta falacia Los riesgos terminan en un pabellón psiquiátrico, pero grupos o naciones que lo hacen son demasiado a menudo tomados en serio. Esta falacia viciosa ha sido la causa del derramamiento de sangre sin fin sobre la historia. Véase también, Pensamiento mágico. También se aplica a las apelaciones negativas engañadas al Cielo, p. Usted dice que el hambre y el colapso ecológico debido al cambio climático son peligros reales, pero sé que Dios no dejaría que eso sucediera. Lo contrario de la Apelación al Cielo es la falacia del Consolador de Empleos. La apelación a la naturaleza: La falacia romántica contemporánea del ethos (la de la madre Naturaleza), que si algo es quotnatural, tiene que ser bueno, saludable y beneficioso. P. ej. Nuestro té de hierbas es elaborado con amor de las mejores hojas frescas de T. Radicans. Las personas que lo descartan como mera Poison Ivy no entienden que es 100 orgánico, sin aditivos ni ingredientes artificiales Es hora de ir verde y volver a poner en brazos madres. Quien emplea o se cae de esta falacia olvida el viejo truismo que, a la izquierda En sí, la naturaleza está ciertamente en dientes y garras. (También quatArgumentum ad Miserecordiamquot). La falacia de instar a una audiencia a la raíz de los perdedores, independientemente de los problemas a la mano. Un ejemplo clásico es que esos pobres y lindos ratones chillones están siendo devorados por gatos malos y desagradables diez veces más grandes. Un ejemplo contemporáneo podría ser el apoyo popular acrítico de las Américas al movimiento de primavera árabe de 2010-2012 en el cual The People (The Underdogsquot ) Fueron vistos como heroicamente derrocando crueles dictaduras, un movimiento que ha resultado en retrospectiva en el caos, la anarquía, el sufrimiento en masa, el aumento del extremismo y la mayor crisis de refugiados desde la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Un argumento corrupto de pathos. Vea también, Jugar a las emociones. Lo opuesto a la apelación a la compasión es el Apelo al Rigor, un argumento (a menudo basado en el machismo o en la manipulación de un miedo del público) basado en la impiedad. P. ej. Soy un hombre de verdad, no como esos corazones sangrantes, y voy a ser duro en llenar el nombre del enemigo o bogeyman de la hora. En la academia esta última falacia se aplica a los llamados políticamente motivados o elitistas para el Rigorquot académico y contra las admisiones abiertas , QuotDumbing Downquot y quotGrade Inflación. quot La apelación a la tradición. (También, el sesgo conservador en el Good Old Daysquot). La falacia de que un punto de vista, una situación o una acción es correcta, correcta y correcta simplemente porque ha sido siempre así, porque la gente ha pensado de esa manera o porque sigue sirviendo a un grupo en particular. Un argumento corrompido del ethos (el de las generaciones pasadas). (Por ejemplo, en América, las mujeres siempre han sido pagadas menos, así que no nos dejemos llevar por una larga tradición). Véase también Argumento de Inercia, y Predeterminado sesgo. Lo opuesto de esto es La apelación a la novedad (también, quot pro-innovación sesgo, quotRecency Bias, quot y quotThe Bad Old Daysquot), p. El argumento de las consecuencias (también, sesgo de resultado): La mayor falacia de argumentar que algo no puede ser verdad, porque si lo fuera Las consecuencias o el resultado serían inaceptables. (Por ejemplo, el cambio climático global no puede ser causado por la quema humana de combustibles fósiles, porque si lo fuera, cambiar a fuentes de energía no contaminantes quiebraría la industria estadounidense, o no, no puedo tener un cáncer terminal, porque si lo hiciera significaría Que no voy a vivir para ver a mis hijos casarse) No se confunda con acciones tienen consecuencias. El argumento de la ignorancia (también, Argumentum ad Ignorantiam): La falacia que desde que no sabemos (o nunca puede saber, o no puede probar) si una afirmación es verdadera o falsa, debe ser falsa (o que debe ser verdad). P. ej. Los científicos nunca van a ser capaces de probar positivamente su teoría de que los humanos evolucionaron de otras criaturas, porque no estábamos allí para verlo. Así, eso demuestra que la cuenta de la creación de seis días de Génesis es literalmente verdadera tal como está escrita Esta falacia incluye Atacar la Evidencia, p. ej Algunas de sus evidencias claves están faltantes, incompletas, o incluso falsas. Esto demuestra que estoy en lo correcto. Esto generalmente incluye Either-Or Reasonin g: E. g. El veterinario no puede encontrar ninguna explicación razonable de por qué mi perro murió. See See Eso demuestra que usted lo envenenó Theres ninguna otra explicación lógica Un argumento corrompido de los logotipos. Una falacia comúnmente encontrada en el razonamiento político, judicial y forense americano. Véase también el Argumento de Priori y el Argumento de Silencio. El Argumento de Inercia (también permanezca el Curso). La falacia de que es necesario continuar en un curso de acción equivocado incluso después de descubrirlo es errónea, porque cambiar de rumbo significaría admitir que la decisión (o el líder, o la fe de uno) estaba mal, y todos los esfuerzos, el gasto y el sacrificio Fue por nada, y eso es impensable. Una variedad del Argumento de las Consecuencias, E para el Esfuerzo, o el Apelo a la Tradición. El argumento de los motivos (también cuestionando los motivos). La falacia de declarar un punto de vista o un argumento inválido únicamente a causa de los motivos malos, corruptos o cuestionables de quien hace la reclamación. P. ej. Bina Laden nos quería fuera de Afganistán, así que tenemos que mantener la lucha. Incluso las personas malvadas con los motivos más corruptos a veces dicen la verdad (e incluso aquellos que tienen los motivos más altos a menudo están equivocados o equivocados). Una variedad del argumento Ad Hominem. La contrapartida de esto es la falacia de falsamente justificar o excusar acciones malvadas o viciosas debido a la pureza de motivos de los autores oa la falta de malicia. (Por ejemplo, puede haber golpeado a sus hijos de vez en cuando, pero era una buena mujer cristiana que hacía lo mejor que podía con lo que ella tenía. ¿Cómo podría acusarla de abuso infantil?) Véase también Licencia Moral. Argumentum ad Baculum ( "Argumentum ad Baculum", "Argumento de la Fuerza", "Liderazgo Muscular", "Demandas No Negociables", "Intimidación", "Fascismo", "Resolución por Fuerza de Armas"). La falacia de la quotpersuasión o de la quotprueba es correcta por la fuerza, la violencia o las amenazas de violencia. P. ej. Quiméeme su cartera o mal golpe su cabeza offquot o quotWe tienen el derecho perfecto para tomar su tierra, ya que tenemos las armas y no dont. quot También se aplica a las formas indirectas de amenaza. P. ej. Quédate con tu estúpido orgullo, arrodíllate y acepta nuestra religión hoy si no quieres quemarte en el infierno por siempre jamás. Argumentum ad Mysteriam (quotArgument from Mystery. quot) Una cámara oscura, incienso, cantando o tamborileando, inclinándose y arrodillándose, O sombrerería, rituales sagrados y voces masivas que recitan misterios sagrados en una lengua desconocida tienen un efecto casi hipnótico ya menudo pueden persuadir con más fuerza que cualquier argumento lógico. La Reforma Protestante fue en gran parte un rechazo de esta falacia. Cuando se utiliza a sabiendas y deliberadamente esta falacia es particularmente vicioso y explica algo del temible poder persuasivo de los cultos. Un ejemplo de un Argumentum ad Mysteriam es el quot Long Ago and Far Away, en el que los hechos, las pruebas, las prácticas o los argumentos de la antigüedad, las tierras lejanas y / o las culturas citoxóticas se ven que adquieren una especial gravitas o ethos simplemente porque Antigüedad, idioma u origen, por ejemplo, Cantando públicamente las Sagradas Escrituras en sus lenguas originales (más a menudo incomprensibles), prefiriendo las Liturgias Cristianas eslavas griegas, latinas, asirias o antiguas sobre sus versiones vernáculas, o usando nombres latinos clásicos o recién inventados para falacias que apoyen su validez. Véase también, Conocimiento Esotérico. Argumentum ex Silentio (Argumento del silencio). La falacia de que si las fuentes disponibles permanecen en silencio o el conocimiento y las pruebas actuales no pueden probar nada sobre un tema dado o cuestionan este hecho en sí mismo demuestra algo sobre la verdad del asunto. P. ej. La ciencia no puede decirnos nada acerca de Dios. Eso demuestra que Dios no existe. ¿O qué? La Ciencia admite que no puede decirnos nada acerca de Dios, así que no puedes negar que Dios existe. A menudo mal utilizado en el sistema de justicia estadounidense, donde, contrario a la 5ª Enmienda, callar o quottaking el quinto es a menudo falsamente Retratado como prueba de culpabilidad. P. ej. Sr. M. Hixel no tiene coartada para la noche del 15 de enero. Esto demuestra que él estaba de hecho en la habitación 331 en el Smugglers Inn, asesinando a su esposa con un hatchetquot En América de hoy, la elección de permanecer en silencio en la cara de los oficiales de policía las preguntas pueden hacer uno lo suficientemente culpable para ser arrestado o incluso un tiro. Véase también Argumento de la ignorancia. Tendencia de la disponibilidad (también, sesgo de atención, anclaje parcial): Una falacia de los logotipos derivados de la tendencia natural a prestar atención e importancia innecesarias a la información inmediatamente disponible, en particular la primera o última información recibida ya minimizar o ignorar Datos o evidencia más amplia que claramente existe, pero no es tan fácil de recordar o acceder. P. ej. Sabemos por experiencia que esto no funciona, cuando quotexperience significa la experiencia local más reciente, ignorando múltiples instancias en otros lugares y momentos en los que ha funcionado y funciona. La falacia de Bandwagon (también, Argumento del sentido común, Argumentum ad Populum): La falacia de argumentar que porque citar a cada uno, supuestamente, piensa o hace algo, debe ser correcto. P. ej. Todo el mundo sabe que los extranjeros indocumentados deben ser expulsados. A veces también incluye Mentir con estadísticas, p. Las encuestas muestran que más de 75 de los estadounidenses creen que el Senador Snith no está diciendo la verdad. Para cualquier persona con la mitad de un cerebro, que concluyentemente prueba hes un mentiroso sucio Esto se combina a veces con el Argumentum ad Baculum, por ejemplo. Como si fuera o no, es hora de elegir lados: vas a subir a bordo del carro con todos los demás o ser aplastado debajo de las ruedas a medida que va por? Por lo contrario de este argumento ver la falacia rebelde romántico. La técnica de la gran mentira: La falla contemporánea de repetir una mentira, una falacia, un eslogan, un punto de conversación, una afirmación sin sentido o una media verdad engañosa una y otra vez en distintas formas (particularmente en los medios de comunicación) hasta que se convierte en Parte del discurso diario y la gente lo cree sin más pruebas o pruebas. P. ej. ¿Qué pasa con la cuestión judía? Tenga en cuenta que cuando este debate en particular falsa estaba ocurriendo no había ninguna pregunta judía, sólo una pregunta neozímica, pero casi nadie en el poder reconoció o quiso hablar de eso. Sin embargo, los ejemplos más contemporáneos de la falacia de la Gran mentira podrían ser el 4 de agosto de 1964 totalmente ficticio, el Incidente del Golfo de Toronto inventado bajo Lyndon Johnson como una justificación para escalar la Guerra de Vietnam, o las no existentes "armas de destrucción masiva" (convenientemente abreviadas como "DMM" para dar a esta Gran Mentira un ethos legitimador y militar) en Irak, usada en 2003 como una justificación falsa para invadir ese país. Vea también, sopa del alfabeto, y Propaganda. La lealtad ciega (también la Obediencia Ciega, la Obediencia Inconcebida, la apelación del Jugador de Campo, la Defensa de Núremberg). La peligrosa falacia de que un argumento o una acción es correcta simplemente y únicamente porque un líder o una fuente respetados (un presidente, un experto, unos padres, uno propio, un equipo o un país, un jefe o un comandante) dice que es correcto. Esto es una excesiva dependencia de la autoridad, un argumento gravemente corrompido del ethos que pone la lealtad por encima de la verdad, por encima de la propia razón y por encima de la conciencia. En este caso, una persona intenta justificar una conducta incorrecta, estúpida o criminal por quejarse. Eso es lo que me dijeron que hiciera, o simplemente obedecía órdenes. Véase también: Los soldados honran a la falacia. Un ejemplo no infrecuente pero extremo de Esta falacia es el Big Brain / Little Brain Fallacy (también, el Fuhrerprinzip) en el que un líder de culto tiránico le dice a los seguidores que no piensan con sus pequeños cerebros (el cerebro en su cabeza), sino con su cerebro GRANDE (los líderes). Este último a veces se expresa en términos positivos, es decir, no tiene que preocuparse y hacer hincapié en la corrección moral o la incorrección de lo que está haciendo ya que yo, el líder. Estoy asumiendo toda la responsabilidad por sus acciones. Yo te defenderé y aceptaré con mucho gusto todas las consecuencias hasta e incluyendo la condenación eterna si estoy equivocado. "Lo contrario de esto último es la falacia de la Denominación Denunciable." Véase también "La sangre es más gruesa que el agua" (también favoritismo, Compadrismo Para mis amigos, cualquier cosa. El reverso de la falacia de Ad Hominemquot, un argumento corrupto del etos en el que una declaración, un argumento o una acción se considera automáticamente como verdadera, correcta y por encima del desafío porque uno está relacionado con, conoce y le gusta, o está en el mismo equipo que el individuo involucrado . (Por ejemplo, mi cuñado dice que te vio jodiendo en el trabajo.) Usted es un trabajador duro, pero ¿a quién voy a creer, a usted oa él, a usted?) Lavado de cerebro (también, Propaganda, quotRadicalization. quot): The Cold War - era fantasía de que un enemigo puede ganar instantáneamente a una audiencia desprevenida con su vil pero de alguna manera indescriptiblemente persuasiva quotpropaganda, por ejemplo Históricamente, quotbrainwashingquot se refiere más apropiadamente al inhumano Argumentum ad Baculum de producir un argumento en un prisionero a través del dolor, el miedo, la privación sensorial o el sueño, el abuso prolongado y la sofisticada manipulación psicológica (también , El síndrome de Stockholm). Tal quotbrainwashingquot también puede lograrse por placer (denominado Love Bombing, quot), p. ¿Te gustó eso? Sé que lo hiciste. Una forma indescriptiblemente siniestra de persuasión por el lavado de cerebro consiste en adiccionar deliberadamente a una persona a las drogas y luego proporcionar o retener la sustancia dependiendo del cumplimiento de los adictos. . Nota: Sólo el quotother sidequot lavado de cerebro. Nunca debemos lavar el cerebro. Soborno (también, Persuasión Material, Incentivo Material, Incentivo Financiero). La falacia de la "quotpersuasión" por soborno, regalos o favores, el reverso del Argumentum ad Baculum. Como es bien sabido, alguien que es persuadido por el soborno rara vez quotstays persuadido a menos que los sobornos siguen llegando y aumentando con el tiempo. Relacionado con esto es la falacia de Appeasement (también, la rueda squeaky obtiene la grasa), más a menudo popularmente conectado a la vergonzosa apaciguamiento de Hitler antes de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, pero todavía comúnmente practicado en las agencias públicas, la educación y el comercio minorista de hoy, p. El cliente siempre tiene razón, incluso cuando están equivocados. Simplemente dame lo que quieren para que se callen y se vayan - es más barato y más simple que un pleito. Razonamiento Circular (también, el Círculo Vicioso Captura 22, Iniciando la Cuestión, C irculus en P robando): Una falacia de logos donde A es debido a B, y B es debido a A, por ejemplo No puedes obtener un trabajo sin experiencia, y no puedes obtener experiencia sin trabajo. También se refiere a falsamente argumentando que algo es cierto al repetir la misma afirmación en diferentes palabras. P. ej. El problema de la brujería es la crisis espiritual más urgente del mundo actual. Porque Porque las brujas amenazan nuestras mismas almas. Un argumento corrupto de logos. Véase también la técnica de la mentira. La falacia contemporánea de exigir una respuesta directa a una pregunta que no puede ser contestada sin primero analizar o cuestionar la base misma de la pregunta. P. ej. ¿Podría usted contestar que sí o no? ¿Pensó que podría salirse con el plagio y no sufrir las consecuencias? O, ¿por qué le robó ese banco? También se aplica a situaciones en las que uno se ve obligado a aceptar o rechazar puntos de vista complejos o proposiciones que contienen tanto aceptable como Partes inaceptables. Una corrupción del argumento de los logotipos. Una contrapartida de Either / Or Reasoning. Sesgo de Confirmación: Una falacia de logos, reconociendo el hecho de que uno siempre tiende a notar, buscar, seleccionar y compartir pruebas que confirman su propio punto de vista y creencias, en contraposición a pruebas contrarias. Esta falacia es la forma en que trabajan los cajeros de las afueras - Si me dicen que me encontraré con un quottall, desconocido oscuro, estaré en la búsqueda de un desconocido alto y oscuro, y cuando me encuentro con alguien que conozca esa descripción me maravillaré de la exactitud De la predicción quotpsíquica. Véase también, quotHalf Truth, quot y quotDefensiveness. quot Predeterminado Bias: (también, si no está roto, no lo arreglo itquot Acquiescence quotMaking los paz con la situaciónquot "Quedarse acostumbrado a ello" Quien es. Es correcto "Es lo que es" Que sea mejor el diablo que usted sabe que el diablo que usted no sabe. La lógica falacia de favorecer o aceptar automáticamente una situación simplemente porque existe en este momento, y argumentando que cualquier otra alternativa es loca, impensable, imposible, o al menos llevaría demasiado esfuerzo, gasto, estrés o riesgo de cambio. Lo contrario de esta falacia es el Nihilismo, rechazando ciegamente lo que existe a favor de lo que podría ser, el desorden infantil de la anarquía romántica, el caos, la revolución quotpermanente, el cambio o cambio por los cambios. Defensividad (también, Opción-apoyo Bias): Una falacia de ethos (los propios), en la que después de haber tomado una determinada decisión, compromiso o curso de acción, automáticamente tiende a defender esa decisión e irracionalmente descartar opciones opuestas, incluso Cuando las decisiones más tarde demuestra ser inestable o incorrecto. P. ej. Sí, he votado a favor de Snith. Claro, resultó ser un ladrón y un mentiroso y nos metió en guerra, pero todavía digo que en ese momento él era mejor que las alternativas disponibles. Véase también Argumento de Inercia y Conflicto de Confirmación. La falacia contemporánea común de aplicar un concepto judicial especializado (que el castigo penal debe ser menos si uno de los juicios se vea perjudicado) a la realidad en general. P. ej. "No puedes contar conmigo ausente el lunes - estaba colgado y no podía venir a clase por lo que no es mi culpa." O, sí, yo estaba corriendo en la autopista y mató a un chico, pero me quedé fuera de mi mente y no Saber lo que estaba haciendo por lo que no importa mucho. En realidad, la muerte importa mucho a la víctima, a su familia y amigos ya la sociedad en general. Si el autor era alto o no, no importa en absoluto, ya que los resultados materiales son los mismos. Esto también incluye la falacia de Pánico. Una falacia contemporánea muy común que las acciones, no importa lo dañino o malo, de alguna manera no cuestan porque yo me asusté. Esta falacia está arraigada en la confusión de las consecuencias con el castigo. Una falacia erudita contemporánea muy común de ethos (que de la disciplina o campo), automáticamente ignorando, descontando o ignorando a priori la investigación de otra manera relevante, argumentos y pruebas que vienen de fuera de la propia disciplina profesional, comunidad de discurso o área académica de estudio. P. ej. Esto puede ser cierto o puede ser falso, pero no es lo que estaban haciendo en nuestro campo en este momento. Véase también, quot Star Powerquot y quotTwo Truths. quot El quotDraw Su propia conclusión Falacia (también el argumento sin argumento Deje que los hechos hablan Para ellos mismos): En esta falacia de los logos, una audiencia desinformada es presentada con hechos cuidadosamente seleccionados y preparados, y luego incitados a sacar sus propias conclusiones. Las detenciones de drogas son más de dos veces más altas entre los patzinaks de clase media que entre cualquier otro grupo de población similar - saca sus propias conclusiones. Es bien sabido que aquellos que tienen permiso para llegar a sus propias conclusiones están generalmente mucho más convencidos que Aquellos a los que se les dan evidencia y conclusión por adelantado. Sin embargo, el Dr. William Lorimer señala que "la única respuesta racional al no-argumento es lo que es lo que crees que has probado y por qué / cómo crees que lo has demostrado" relacionado con esto es el conocido " Falacia. Donde una pregunta simulada, sarcástica o sesgada se pide únicamente con el fin de evocar una respuesta deseada. Equot para el esfuerzo. (También Noble Effort): La falacia contemporánea común de que algo debe ser correcto, verdadero, valioso o digno de respeto y honor, simplemente porque alguien ha puesto tanto esfuerzo sincero de buena fe o incluso sacrificio y derramamiento de sangre en él. (Véase también Apelar al argumento de la Piedad de Inertia Heroes All or Sob Story.). Un ejemplo extremo de esto es la Falacia de la Sangre de los Mártires. Que una causa o argumento, no importa cuan cuestionable o reprensible, no puede ser cuestionado sin deshonrar la sangre y el sacrificio de los que murieron noblemente por la causa O bien o el Razonamiento: (también Dilema Falso, Falso Dicotomía, Falacia Blanco / Negro, Falso Binario Lógica). Una falacia que ofrece falsamente sólo dos opciones posibles, aunque una amplia gama de posibles alternativas siempre están disponibles. P. ej. "O bien son 100 Simon Straightarrow o son tan rara como un billete de tres dólares - es tan simple como eso y theres no medio groundquot O, O bien está en con nosotros todo el camino o usted es un hostil y debe ser destruido ¿Qué va a ser También se aplica a contrastar falsamente una opción o caso con otro que no es realmente opuesto, por ejemplo Falsamente contrarrestar el asunto de las vidas negras con la vida de las vidas muertas cuando en realidad no pocos oficiales de policía son afroamericanos y los afroamericanos y la policía no son (o no deberían ser) enemigos naturales. Véase también, Overgeneralization. Equivocación. La falacia de deliberadamente fallar en definir los términos, o de manera consciente y deliberada usar palabras en un sentido diferente al que el público entenderá. (Por ejemplo, el presidente Bill Clinton declarando que no tenía relaciones sexuales con esa mujer, sin significar ninguna penetración sexual, sabiendo muy bien que la audiencia entenderá su declaración como "no tuve contacto sexual de ninguna clase con esa mujer". Una corrupción del argumento del logos, y una táctica que se utiliza a menudo en la jurisprudencia americana. Conocimiento Esotérico (también Sabiduría Esotérica Gnosticismo Verdad Interna): Una falacia de logos y ethos, que hay algún conocimiento reservado sólo para el Sabio, el Santo o el Iluminado, cosas que las masas no pueden entender y no merecen saber, al menos La contraparte de esta falacia es la del Obscurantismo (también Obscurationism Willful Ignorance), que (casi siempre se dice en una voz basso profunda). Hay algunas cosas que los simples mortales no deben nunca descubrir por ejemplo Las investigaciones científicas sobre la sexualidad humana son moralmente malas. Hay algunas cosas que los seres humanos simplemente no tienen la intención de conocer. Por lo contrario de esto último, vea la falacia de la Verdad Llana. Véase también Argumentum ad Mysteriam. Esencializante. Una falacia que propone a una persona o cosa es lo que es y eso es todo lo que es, y en su núcleo siempre será la forma en que es ahora (Por ejemplo, todos los terroristas son monstruos, y seguirán siendo monstruos terroristas, incluso si viven a Ser 100, quot o quotThe pobres que siempre tendrá con usted, por lo que cualquier esfuerzo para eliminar la pobreza es inútil. quot). También se refiere a la falacia de argumentar que algo es una cierta forma de naturaleza quotby, una afirmación vacía que ninguna cantidad de prueba puede refutar. Lo contrario de esto es la falacia de la Relativización, rechazando alegremente todos y cada uno de los argumentos en contra de su punto de vista al encogerse de hombros, es decir, Los hombros y respondiendo a eso todo lo relativo, invocando o invocando falsamente Einstein, el principio de incertidumbre de Heisenberg o la rareza cuántica para confundir, mitigar o quotrefutar a un oponente. See also, quotRed Herring. quot See also quotAppeal to Nature. quot The Excluded Middle: A corrupted argument from logos that proposes that since a little of something is good, more must be better (or that if less of something is good, none at all is even better). P. ej. quotIf eating an apple a day is good for you, eating an all-apple diet is even betterquot or quotIf a low fat diet prolongs your life, a zero-fat diet should make you live foreverquot An opposite of this fallacy is that of Excluded Outliers . where one arbitrarily dismisses examples or results that disprove ones standpoint by simply describing them as quotWeird, quot quotOutliers, quot or quotAtypical. quot Also opposite is the fallacy of the Middle Path . where one demonstrates the quotreasonablenessquot of ones own standpoint (no matter how extreme) not on its own merits, but solely or mainly by presenting it as the quotmoderatequot path between two obviously unacceptable alternatives. P. ej. Lenin successfully argued for Bolshevism as the only available quotmoderatequot middle path between bomb-throwing Nihilist terrorists on the ultraleft and a corrupt and hated Czarist autocracy on the right. The False Analogy . The fallacy of incorrectly comparing one thing to another in order to draw a false conclusion. P. ej. quotJust like an alley cat needs to prowl, a normal adult cant be tied down to one single lover. quot The opposite of this fallacy is the Sui Generis Fallacy . a postmodern stance that rejects the validity of analogy and of inductive reasoning altogether because any given person, place, thing or idea under consideration is quotsui generisquot i. e. unique, in a class unto itself. Finish the Job: The dangerous contemporary fallacy that an action or standpoint (or the continuation of the action or standpoint) may not be questioned or discussed because there is quota job to be done, quot falsely assuming all quotjobsquot are meaningless but never to be questioned. Sometimes those involved internalize (quotbuy intoquot) the quotjobquot and make the task a part of their own ethos. (E. g. quotOurs is not to reason why / Ours is but to do or die. quot) Related to this is the quot Just a Jobquot fallacy. (E. g. quotHow can torturers stand to look at themselves in the mirror But, I guess its OK because for them its just a job. quot) (See also quotBlind Loyalty, quot quotThe Soldiers Honor Fallacyquot and quotArgument from Inertia. quot) The Free Speech Fallacy: The infantile fallacy of responding to challenges to ones statements and standpoints by whining, quotIts a free country, isnt it I can believe anything I want toquot A recent extreme case of this is the quot Safe Space, quot where one is not allowed to refute, challenge or even discuss anothers beliefs because that might be too uncomfortable or quottriggeryquot for emotionally fragile individuals. Gaslighting: A vicious fallacy of logic, deliberately twisting or distorting known facts, memories, scenes, events and evidence in order to disorient a vulnerable opponent and to make him or her doubt his/her sanity. This fallacy is named after British playwright Patrick Hamiltons 1938 stage play quotGas Light, quot also known as quotAngel Street. quot Guilt by Association: The fallacy of trying to refute or condemn someones standpoint, arguments or actions by evoking the negative ethos of those with whom one is identified or of a group, party, religion or race to which he or she belongs or once associated with. A form of Ad Hominem Argument. p. ej. quotDont listen to her. Shes a Republican so you cant trust anything she says, quot or quotAre you or have you ever been a member of the Communist Partyquot An extreme instance of this is the Machiavellian quotFor my enemies, nothingquot Fallacy . where perceived quotenemiesquot are always wrong and must be conceded nothing, not even the time of day, e. g. quotHes a Republican, so even if he said the sky is blue I wouldnt believe him. quot The Half Truth (also Card Stacking, Stacking the Deck, Incomplete Information). A corrupt argument from logos, the fallacy of consciously selecting, collecting and sharing only that evidence that supports ones own standpoint, telling the strict truth but deliberately minimizing or omitting important key details in order to falsify the larger picture and support a false conclusion.(e. g. The truth is that Bangladesh is one of the worlds fastest growing countries and can boast of a young, ambitious and hard-working population, a warm climate, low cost medical and dental care, a multitude of places of worship, a delicious, spicy local cuisine and a swinging nightclub scene. Taken together, all these facts clearly prove that Bangladesh is one of the worlds most desirable places for young families to live, work and raise a family.) See also, Confirmation Bias. Hero-Busting (also, quotThe Perfect is the Enemy of the Goodquot) under which, since nothing and nobody in this world is perfect there are not and have never been any heroes: Washington and Jefferson held slaves, Lincoln was (by our contemporary standards) a racist, Karl Marx had a kid by the housemaid, Martin Luther King Jr. had an eye for women too, Lenin condemned feminism, the Mahatma drank his own urine (ugh), the Pope is wrong on capitalism, same-sex marriage and womens ordination, Mother Teresa loved suffering and was wrong on just about everything else too, etc. etc Also applies to the now nearly-universal political tactic of ransacking everything an opponent has said, written or done since infancy in order to find something to misinterpret or condemn (and we all have something ). An early example of this latter is deftly described in Robert Penn Warrens classic (1946) novel, All the Kings Men . This is the opposite of the quotHeroes Allquot fallacy. Heroes All (also, quotEverybodys a Winnerquot): The contemporary fallacy that everyone is above average or extraordinary. A corrupted argument from pathos (not wanting anyone to lose or to feel bad). Thus, every member of the Armed Services, past or present, who served honorably is a national hero, every student who competes in the Science Fair wins a ribbon or trophy, and every racer is awarded a winners yellow jersey. This corruption of the argument from pathos, much ridiculed by American humorist Garrison Keeler, ignores the fact that if everybody wins nobody wins, and if everyones a hero no ones a hero. The logical result of this fallacy is that, as childrens author Alice Childress writes (1973), quota hero aint nothing but a sandwich. quot See also the quotSoldiers Honor Fallacy. quot I Wish I Had a Magic Wand: The fallacy of regretfully (and falsely) proclaiming oneself powerless to change a bad or objectionable situation. P. ej. quotWhat can we do about gas prices As Secretary of Energy I wish I had a magic wand, but I dontquot shrug . Or, quotNo, you cant quit piano lessons. I wish I had a magic wand and could teach you piano overnight, but I dont, so like it or not, you have to keep on practicing. quot The parent, of course, ignores the possibility that the child may not want or need to learn piano. See also, TINA. The Jobs Comforter Fallacy (also, quotKarma is a bihquot quotWhat goes around comes around. quot): The fallacy that since there is no such thing as random chance and we (I, my group, or my country) are under special protection of heaven, any misfortune or natural disaster that we suffer must be a punishment for our own or someone elses secret sin or open wickedness. The opposite of the Appeal to Heaven, this is the fallacy employed by the Westboro Baptist Church members who protest fallen service members funerals all around the United States. See also, Magical Thinking. Just Do it. ( also , quotFind a wayquot quotI dont care how you do itquot quotAccomplish the missionquot quotBy Any Means Necessary. quot ) A pure, abusive Argumentum ad Baculum (argument from force), in which someone in power arbitrarily waves aside or overrules the moral objections of subordinates or followers and orders them to accomplish a goal by any means required, fair or foul The clear implication is that unethical or immoral methods should be used. P. ej. quotYou say theres no way you can finish the dig on schedule because theres an old unmarked graveyard on the excavation site Well, find a way I dont want to know how you do it, just do it This is a million dollar contract and we need it done by Tuesday. quot See also, Plausible Deniability. Just Plain Folks (also, quotValuesquot ): This corrupt modern argument from ethos argues to a less-educated or rural audience that the one arguing is quotjust plain folksquot who is a quotplain talker, quot quotsays what s/he is thinking, quot and thinks like the audience, and is thus worthy of belief, unlike some quotdouble-domed professor, quot quotWashington bureaucrat, quot quottree-huggerquot or other despised outsider who quotdoesnt think like we doquot or quotdoesnt share our traditional values. quot This is a counterpart to the Ad Hominem Fallacy and occasionally carries a distinct flavor of xenophobia or racism as well. This also includes the fallacy that quotWere just plain folks so we need to keep our heads down and not get involved in the big things of this world, like politics, demonstrations or protests. quot See also the Plain Truth Fallacy and the Simpletons Fallacy. The Law of Unintended Consequences (also, quotEvery Revolution Ends up Eating its own Young:quot Grit Resilience Doctrine) : In this very dangerous, archly pessimistic postmodern fallacy the bogus quotLaw of Unintended Consequences, quot once a semi-humorous satirical corollary of quotMurphys Law, quot is elevated to to the status of an iron law of history. This fallacy arbitrarily proclaims a priori that since we can never know everything or foresee anything . sooner or later in todays quotcomplex worldquot unforeseeable adverse consequences and negative side effects (so-called quotunknown unknownsquot) will always end up blindsiding and overwhelming, defeating and vitiating any and all quotdo-gooderquot efforts to improve our world. Instead, we must always expect defeat and be ready to roll with the punches by developing quotgritquot or quotresiliencequot as a primary survival skill. This nihilist fallacy is a practical negation of the the possibility of any argument from logos. See also, TINA. Lying with Statistics . The contemporary fallacy of using true figures and numbers to prove unrelated claims. (e. g. quotCollege tuition costs have actually never been lower. When expressed as a percentage of the national debt, the cost of getting a college education is actually far lower today than it was in 1965quot). A corrupted argument from logos, often preying on the publics perceived or actual mathematical ignorance. This includes the Tiny Percentage Fallacy . that an expense that is quite significant in and of itself somehow becomes insignificant simply because its a tiny percentage of something much larger. P. ej. a consumer who would choke on spending an extra dollar for two cans of peas will typically ignore 50 extra on the price of a car or 1000 extra on the price of a house simply because these differences are quotonlyquot a tiny percentage of the much larger amount being spent. Historically, sales taxes or value-added taxes have successfully gained public acceptance and remain quotunder the radarquot because of this latter fallacy. See also Half-truth, Snow Job, and Red Herring. Magical Thinking (also, the Sin of Presumption). An ancient but deluded fallacy of logos, that when it comes to quotcrunch time, quot provided one has enough faith, prays hard enough, does the right rituals, or quotclaims the promise, quot God will always suspend the laws of the universe and work a miracle at the request of the True Believer. In practice this nihilist fallacy denies the existence of a rational or predictable universe and thus the possibility of any valid argument from logic. See also, Positive Thinking, the Appeal to Heaven, and the Jobs Comforter fallacy. Mala Fides (Arguing in Bad Faith also Sophism): Using an argument that the arguer himself or herself knows is not valid. P. ej. An unbeliever attacking believers by throwing verses from their own Holy Scriptures at them. or a lawyer arguing for the innocence of someone whom s/he knows full well to be guilty. This latter is a common practice in American jurisprudence, and is sometimes portrayed as the worst face of quotSophism. quot Special thanks to Bradley Steffens for pointing out this fallacy Included under this fallacy is the fallacy of Motivational Truth ( also , Demagogy) . deliberately lying to quotpeoplequot to motivate them toward some action the arguer perceives to be desirable (using evil discursive means toward a good material end). A particularly bizarre and corrupt form of this latter fallacy is Self Deception (also, Whistling by the Graveyard ) . in which one deliberately and knowingly deludes oneself in order to achieve a goal, or perhaps simply in order to suppress anxiety and maintain ones energy level, enthusiasm, morale, peace of mind or sanity in moments of adversity. Measurability: A corrupt argument from logos and ethos (that of science and mathematics), the modern Fallacy of Measurability proposes that if something cannot be measured and quantified it does not exist, or is quotnothing but touchy-feely stuffquot unworthy of serious consideration, i. e. mere anecdotal gossip or subjective opinion. Moral Licensing: The contemporary ethical fallacy that ones consistently moral life, good behavior or recent extreme suffering or sacrifice earns him/her the right to commit an immoral act without repercussions, consequences or punishment. P. ej. quotIve been good all year, so one bad wont matter, quot or quotAfter what Ive been through, God knows I need this. quot The fallacy of Moral Licensing is also sometimes applied to nations, e. g. quotThose who criticize repression and the Gulag in the former USSR forget what extraordinary suffering the Russians went through in World War II and the millions upon millions who died. quot See also Argument from Motives. The opposite of this fallacy is the (excessively rare in our times) ethical fallacy of Scruples, in which one obsesses to pathological excess about ones accidental, forgotten, unconfessed or unforgiven sins and because of them, the seemingly inevitable prospect of eternal damnation. Mortification: (also, Live as Though Youre Dying Pleasure-hating No Pain No Gain): An ancient fallacy of logos, trying to quotbeat the flesh into submissionquot by extreme aescetic practices, deliberate starvation or infliction of pain, denying the undeniable fact that discomfort and pain exist for the purpose of warning of damage to the body. Extreme examples of this fallacy are various forms of self-flagellation such as practiced by the New Mexico quot Penitentes quot during Holy Week or Shia devotees during Muharram. More common contemporary manifestations of this fallacy are extreme quotinsanityquot exercise regimes, not intended for normal health, fitness or competitive purposes but just to quottoughenquot or quotpunishquot the body. Some contemporary experts suggest that self-mortification (a word related to the French quotmort, quot or quotdeath. quot) is in fact quotsuicide on the installment plan. quot Others suggest that it involves a narcotic-like addiction to the bodys natural endorphins. The opposite of this fallacy is Hedonism . seeking physical pleasure simply for pleasures sake. Moving the Goalposts: A fallacy of logos, demanding a certain degree of proof or evidence and then when this is offered, demanding even more, different or better evidence in order to validate an argument or establish a fact. MYOB (Mind Your Own Business also Youre Not the Boss of Me quotSo Whatquot, The Appeal to Privacy), The contemporary fallacy of arbitrarily terminating any discussion of ones own standpoints or behavior, no matter how absurd, dangerous, evil or offensive, by drawing a phony curtain of privacy around oneself and ones actions. A corrupt argument from ethos (your own). (E. g. quotSure, I was doing eighty and weaving between lanes on Mesa Street--whats it to you Youre not a cop, youre not my nanny. Its my business to speed, and your business to get the hell out of my way. Mind your own businessquot Or, quotYeah, I killed my baby. So what Butt out Its none of your businessquot) Rational discussion is cut off because quotit is none of your businessquot See also, quotTaboo. quot The counterpart of this is quot Nobody Will Ever Know, quot (also quotWhat happens in Vegas stays in Vegasquot quotI Think Were Alone Now, quot or the Heart of Darkness Syndrome) the fallacy that just because nobody important is looking (or because one is on vacation, or away in college, or overseas) one may freely commit immoral, selfish, negative or evil acts at will without expecting any of the normal consequences or punishment. Author Joseph Conrad graphically describes this sort of moral degradation in the character of Kurtz in his classic novel, The Heart of Darkness . Name-Calling: A variety of the quotAd Hominemquot argument. The dangerous fallacy that, simply because of who one is, any and all arguments, disagreements or objections against ones standpoint or actions are automatically racist, sexist, anti-Semitic, bigoted, discriminatory or hateful. P. ej. quotMy stand on abortion is the only correct one. To disagree with me, argue with me or question my judgment in any way would only show what a pig you really are. quot Also applies to refuting an argument by simply calling it a quotfallacy, quot or declaring it invalid without proving why it is invalid, or summarily dismissing arguments or opponents by labeling them quotracist, quot quotcommunist, quot quotfascist, quot or some other negative name without further explanation. A subset of this is the Newspeak fallacy, creating identification with a certain kind of audience by inventing or using racist or offensive, sometimes military-sounding nicknames for common enemies, e. g. quotThe damned DINOs are even worse than the Repugs and the Neocons. quot Or, quotIn the Big One it took us only five years to beat both the Jps and the Jerries, so more than a decade and a half after niner-eleven why is it so hard for us to beat a raggedy bunch of Hajjis and Towel-headsquot Note that originally the word quotNaziquot belonged in this category, but this term has long come into use as a proper English noun. See also, quotReductionism, quot quotAd Hominem Argument, quot and quotAlphabet Soup. quot No Discussion (also No Negotiation, the Control Voice, Peace through Strength, Muscular Foreign Policy, Fascism): A pure Argumentum ad Baculum that rejects reasoned dialogue, offering either instant, unconditional compliance/surrender or defeat/death as the only two options for settling even minor differences. P. ej. quotGet down on the ground, now quot or quotWe dont talk to terrorists. quot This deadly fallacy falsely paints real or potential quothostilesquot as monsters devoid of all reason, and far too often contains a very strong element of quotmachismoquot as well. Es decir. quotA real, muscular leader never resorts to pantywaist pleading, apologies, fancy talk or argument. Thats for lawyers, liars and pansies and is nothing but a delaying-tactic. A real man stands tall, talks straight, draws fast and shoots to kill. quot The late actor John Wayne frequently portrayed this fallacy in his movie roles. See also, The Pout. Non-recognition: A deluded fallacy in which one deliberately chooses not to publicly quotrecognizequot ground truth, usually on the theory that this would somehow reward evil-doers if we recognize their deeds as real. Often the underlying theory is that the situation is quottemporaryquot and will soon be reversed. P. ej. In the decades from 1949 until Richard Nixons presidency the United States officially refused to recognize the existence of the most populous nation on earth, the Peoples Republic of China because America supported the U. S.-friendly Republic of China government on Taiwan instead and hoped they might return to power on the mainland. More than half a century after the Korean War the U. S. still refuses to pronounce the name of or recognize a nuclear-armed DPRK (North Korea). An individual who does this risks institutionalization (e. g. quotI refuse to recognize Moms murder, cuz that would give the victory to the murderer I refuse to watch you bury her Stop Stopquot) but tragically, such behavior is only too common in international relations. See also the State Actor Fallacy, Political Correctness, and The Pout. The Non Sequitur . The fallacy of offering reasons or conclusions that have no logical connection to the argument at hand (e. g. The reason I flunked your course is because the government is now printing purple five-dollar bills Purple ). (See also Red Herring.) Occasionally involves the breathtaking arrogance of claiming to have special knowledge of why God, fate or the Universe is doing certain things. P. ej. quotThis weeks earthquake was obviously meant to punish those people for their great wickedness. quot Nothing New Under the Sun (also, Seen it all before quotSurprise, surprisequot quotPlus a change, plus cest la mme chose. quot) Fairly rare in contemporary discourse, this deeply cynical fallacy, a corruption of the argument from logos, falsely proposes that there is not and has never been any real novelty in this world. Any argument that there are truly new ideas or phenomena is judged a priori to be unworthy of serious discussion and dismissed with a jaded sigh and a wave of the hand as quotthe same old same old. quot E. g. Sigh Idiots Dont you see that the current influx of refugees from the Mideast is just the same old Muslim invasion of Europe thats been going on for 1,400 years Or, Libertarianism is nothing but re-warmed anarchism, which, in turn, is nothing but the ancient Antinomian Heresy. Like I told you before, theres nothing new under the sun Olfactory Rhetoric (also, quotThe Nose Knowsquot): A vicious, animal-level fallacy of pathos in which opponents are dismissed or dehumanized primarily based on their supposed odor, lack of personal cleanliness, or filth. P. ej. quotThose demonstrators are demanding something, but Ill only talk to them if first they go home and take a bathquot Or, quotThose filthy s stinkquot Also applies to demeaning other cultures or nationalities based on their differing cuisines, e. g. quotI dont care what they say, their breath always stinks of garlic. And have you ever smelled their kitchensquot See also, quotTheyre Not Like Us. quot Oops (also, quotOh, I forgot. quot quotThe Judicial Surprise, quot quotThe October Surprise, quot): A corrupt argument from logos in which toward the end of a discussion or debate an opponent suddenly, elaborately and usually sarcastically shams having just remembered or uncovered some salient fact, argument or evidence. P. ej. quotOops, I forgot to ask you: You were convicted of this same offense twice before, werent youquot Also applies to quotdiscoveringquot and sensationally reporting some potentially damning information or evidence and then, after the damage has been done, quietly declaring at the last moment, quotOops, I guess that really wasnt true after all. Sorry. quot Overexplanation: A fallacy of logos stemming from the paradox that beyond a certain point, more explanation, instructions or discussion inevitably results in less, not more, understanding. Contemporary urban mythology holds that this fallacy is typically male (quot Mansplaining quot), while barely half a century ago the prevailing myth was that it was men who were non-verbal while women would typically overexplain (e. g. the 1960 hit song by Joe Jones, quotYou Talk Too Muchquot). quotMansplainingquot is, according to scholar Danelle Pecht, quotthe infuriating tendency of many men to always have to be the smartest person in the room, regardless of the topic of discussion and how much they actually knowquot See also the quotPlain Truthquot fallacy. Overgeneralization (also Hasty Generalization, Totus pro Partes Fallacy , the Merological Fallacy ) where a broad generalization that is agreed to be true is offered as overriding all particular cases, particularly special cases requiring immediate attention. P. ej. quotDoctor, you say that this time of year a flu vaccination is essential. but I would counter that ALL vaccinations are essentialquot (implying that Im not going to give special attention to getting the flu shot). Or, attempting to refute quotBlack Lives Matterquot by replying, All Lives Matter, quot the latter undeniably true but still a fallacious overgeneralization in that specific and urgent context. quotOvergeneralizationquot also includes the the Pars pro Toto Fallacy . the stupid but common fallacy of incorrectly applying one or two true examples to all cases. P. ej. Some college student was tailgating me all the way up North Main Street last night. This proves that all college students are lousy drivers and that we should pull their drivers licenses until they grow up, learn to drive or graduate The Paralysis of Analysis (also, Procrastination the Nirvana Fallacy): A postmodern fallacy that since all data is never in, any conclusion is always provisional, no legitimate decision can ever be made and any action should always be delayed until forced by circumstances. A corruption of the argument from logos. (See also quotLaw of Unintended Consequences. quot) The Passive Voice Fallacy (also, the Bureaucratic Passive): A fallacy from ethos, concealing agency behind the curtain of the grammatical passive voice, e. g. quotIt has been decided that you will be let go, quot arrogating an ethos of cosmic infallibility and inevitability to a very fallible conscious decision made by identifiable and fallible human beings. Paternalism: A serious fallacy of ethos, arbitrarily tut-tutting, dismissing or ignoring anothers concerns as quotchildishquot or quotimmaturequot taking a condescending attitude of superiority toward opposing arguments or toward opponents themselves. P. ej. quotYour argument against the war is so infantile. Try approaching the issue like an adult for a change, quot quotI dont argue with children, quot or quotSomebody has to be the grownup in the room, and it might as well be me. Heres why youre wrong. quot Also refers to the sexist fallacy of dismissing a womans argument because she is a woman, e. g. quotOh, it must be that time of the month, ehquot See also quotAd Hominem Argument. quot The Plain Truth Fallacy (also, the Simple Truth fallacy, Salience Bias, the KISS Principle Keep it Short and Simple, the Executive Summary): A fallacy of logos favoring familiar or easily comprehensible data, examples and evidence over that which is more complex and unfamiliar but much closer to the truth. E. g, quotOoooh, look at all those equations and formulas Just boil it down to the Simple Truth, quot or quotI dont want your damned philosophy lesson Just tell me the Plain Truth about why this is happening. quot A more sophisticated version of this fallacy arbitrarily proposes, as did 18th century Scottish rhetorician John Campbell, that the Truth is always simple by nature and only malicious enemies of the Truth would ever seek to make it complicated. (See also, The Snow Job, and Overexplanation.) The opposite of this is the postmodern fallacy of Ineffability or Complexity . arbitrarily declaring that todays world is so complex that there is no truth, or that Truth (capital-T), if indeed such a thing exists, is unknowable except perhaps by God and is thus forever inaccessible and irrelevant to us mere finite mortals, making any cogent argument from logos impossible. See also the Paralysis of Analysis. Plausible Deniability: A vicious fallacy of ethos under which someone in power forces those under his or her control to do some questionable or evil act and to then falsely assume or conceal responsibility for that act in order to protect the ethos of the one in command. P. ej. quotArrange a fatal accident but make sure I know nothing about itquot Playing on Emotion (also, the Sob Story the Pathetic Fallacy the quotBleeding Heartquot fallacy): The classic fallacy of pure argument from pathos, ignoring facts and calling on emotion alone. P. ej. If you dont agree that witchcraft is a major problem just shut up, close your eyes for a moment and picture in your mind all those poor moms crying bitter tears for their innocent tiny children whose cozy little beds and happy tricycles lie all cold and abandoned, just because of those wicked old witches Lets stringem all up The opposite of this is the archly cynical Apathetic Fallacy (also, Compassion Fatigue), where any and all legitimate arguments from pathos are brushed aside because quotI dont give a damn, quot or as sung by country music singer Jo Dee Messina (2005), quotMy give a damn is busted. quot Also associated with the Pathetic Fallacy is the ancient fallacy of Refinement (quot Real Feelingsquot), where certain classes of living beings such as plants and animals, infants, babies and minor children, slaves, deep-sea sailors, farmworkers, criminals and convicts, refugees, addicts, terrorists, foreigners, the poor, or quotthe lower classesquot in general are deemed incapable of experiencing real pain like we do, or of having any quot real feelingsquot at all, only brutish appetites, filthy lusts, animal instincts, drives, cravings and automatic tropisms. See also, Theyre Not Like Us. Political Correctness (quotPCquot): A postmodern fallacy, a counterpart of the quotName Callingquot fallacy, supposing that the nature of a thing or situation can be changed by simply changing its name. P. ej. quotToday we strike a blow for animal rights and against cruelty to animals by changing the name of pets to animal companions. quot Or quotNever, ever play the victim card, because its so manipulative and sounds so negative, helpless and despairing. Instead of saying victims, we are proud to be survivors. quot (Of course, when quotvictimsquot disappear then perpetrators conveniently vanish as well) Also applies to other forms of political quot Language Control, quot e. g. being careful never to refer to North Korea or ISIS/ISIL by their rather pompous proper names (quotthe Democratic Peoples Republic of Koreaquot and quotthe Islamic State, quot respectively) or to the Syrian government as the quotSyrian government, quot (Its always the quotRegimequot or the quotDictatorship. quot). See also, Non-recognition. The Pollyanna Principle (also, quotProjection Bias, quot quotTheyre Just Like Us, quot quotSinging Kumbaya. quot) A traditional, often tragic fallacy of ethos, that of automatically (and falsely) assuming that everyone else in any given place, time and circumstance had or has basically the same wishes, desires, interests, concerns, ethics and moral code as quotwequot do. This fallacy practically if not theoretically denies both the reality of difference and the human capacity to chose radical evil. P. ej. arguing that quotThe only thing most Nazi Storm Troopers wanted was the same thing we do, to live in peace and prosperity and to have a good family life, quot when the reality was radically otherwise. Dr. William Lorimer offers this explanation: quot The Projection Bias is the flip side of the Theyre Not Like Us fallacy. The Projection bias (fallacy) is Theyre just people like me, therefore they must be motivated by the same things that motivate me. For example: I would never pull a gun and shoot a police officer unless I was convinced he was trying to murder me therefore, when Joe Smith shot a police officer, he must have been in genuine fear for his life. I see the same fallacy with regard to Israel: The people of Gaza just want to be left in peace therefore, if Israel would just lift the blockade and allow Hamas to import anything they want, without restriction, they would stop firing rockets at Israel. That may or may not be true - I personally dont believe it - but the argument clearly presumes that the people of Gaza, or at least their leaders, are motivated by a desire for peaceful co-existence. quot The Pollyanna Principle was gently but expertly demolished in the classic twentieth-century American cartoon series, quotThe Flintstones, quot in which the humor lay in the absurdity of picturing quotStone Agequot characters having the same concerns, values and lifestyles as mid-twentieth century white working class Americans. This is the opposite of the quotTheyre Not Like Usquot fallacy. (Note: The Pollyanna Principle fallacy should not be confused with a psychological principle of the same name which observes that positive memories are usually retained more strongly than negative ones. ) The Positive Thinking Fallacy: An immensely popular but deluded modern fallacy of logos, that because we are quotthinking positivelyquot that in itself somehow biases external, objective reality in our favor even before we lift a finger to act. See also, Magical Thinking. Note that this particular fallacy is often part of a much wider closed-minded, sometimes cultish ideology where the practitioner is warned against paying attention to to or even acknowledging the existence of quotnegativequot evidence or counter-arguments against his/her standpoints. In the latter case rational argument or refutation is most often futile. The Post Hoc Argument . (also, quotPost Hoc Propter Hocquot quotToo much of a coincidence, quot the quotClustering Illusionquot): The classic paranoiac fallacy of attributing imaginary causality to random coincidences, concluding that just because something happens close to, at the same time as, or just after something else, the first thing is caused by the second. P. ej. quotAIDS first emerged as a problem back in the very same era when Disco music was becoming popular--thats too much of a coincidence: It proves that Disco caused AIDSquot The Pout (also The Silent Treatment Nonviolent Civil Disobedience Noncooperation). An Argumentum ad Baculum that arbitrarily rejects or gives up on dialogue before it is concluded. The most benign nonviolent form of this fallacy is found in passive-aggressive tactics such as slowdowns, boycotts, lockouts, sitdowns and strikes. Under Barack Obama the United States ended a half-century long political Pout with Cuba. See also quotNo Discussionquot and quotNonrecognition. quot The Red Herring (also, Distraction): An irrelevant argument, attempting to mislead an audience by bringing up an unrelated but emotionally loaded issue. P. ej. quotIn regard to my several bankruptcies and recent indictment for corruption lets be straight up about whats really important: Terrorism Vote for me and Ill fight those terrorists anywhere in the worldquot Also applies to raising unrelated issues as falsely opposing the issue at hand, e. g. quotYou say Black Lives Matter, quot but I say Zika Mattersquot when the two contentions are in no way opposed, only competing for attention. See also Availability Bias. Reductio ad Hitlerum (or, ad Hitleram): A highly problematic contemporary historical-revisionist contention that the argument quotThats just what Hitler said (or would have said)quot is a fallacy, an instance of the Ad Hominem argument and/or Guilt by Association. Whether the Reductio ad Hitlerum can be considered an actual fallacy or not seems to fundamentally depend on ones personal view of Hitler and the gravity of his crimes. Reductionism . (also, Oversimplifying, Sloganeering): The fallacy of deceiving an audience by giving simple answers or bumper-sticker slogans in response to complex questions, especially when appealing to less educated or unsophisticated audiences. P. ej. quotIf the glove doesnt fit, you must vote to acquit. quot Or, quotVote for Snith. Hes tough on terrorismquot In science, technology, engineering and mathematics (quotSTEM subjectsquot) reductionism is intentionally practiced to make intractable problems computable, e. g. the well-known humorous suggestion, quotFirst, lets assume the cow is a spherequot. Reifying . The fallacy of treating imaginary categories as actual, material quotthings. quot (E. g. quotThe War against Terror is a never-ending fight to the death between Freedom and Absolute Evilquot) Sometimes also referred to as quot Essentializin gquot or Hypostatization . The Romantic Rebel (also, the Truthout Fallacy the Brave Heretic Conspiracy theories the Iconoclastic Fallacy): The contemporary fallacy of claiming truth or validity for ones standpoint solely or primarily because one is supposedly standing up heroically to the prevailing quotorthodoxy, quot the current Standard Model, conventional wisdom or politics, or whatever may be the Bandwagon of the moment a corrupt argument from ethos. P. ej. quotBack in the day the scientific establishment thought that the world was flat, until Columbus proved them wrong Now they want us to believe that ordinary water is nothing but H 2, O. Are you going to believe them The government is frantically trying to suppress the truth that our drinking-water supply actually has nitrogen in it and causes congenital vampirism And what about Area 51 Dont you care Or are you just a kiss-up for the corrupt corporate Washington establishmentquot The opposite of the Bandwagon fallacy. Scapegoating (also, Blamecasting): The ancient fallacy that whenever something goes wrong theres always someone other than oneself to blame. Although sometimes this fallacy is a practical denial of randomness or chance itself. today it is more often a mere insurance-driven business decision (quotI dont care if it was an accident Somebody with deep pockets is gonna pay for thisquot), though often scapegoating is no more than a cynical ploy to shield those truly responsible from blame. A particularly corrupt and cynical example of this is Blaming the Victim, in which one falsely casts the blame for ones own evil or questionable actions on those affected, e. g. quotIf you move an eyelash Ill have to kill you and youll be to blamequot or quotYou bih, you dressed immodestly and made me rape you Then you went and snitched on me and now Im going to prison and every bit of it is your faultquot See also, the Affective Fallacy. The Scare Tactic (also Paranoia): A variety of Playing on Emotions, a raw appeal to fear. A corrupted argument from pathos.(E. g. quotIf you dont shut up and do what I say were all gonna die In this moment of crisis we cant afford the luxury of criticizing or trying to second-guess my decisions when our very lives and freedom are in peril Instead, we need to be united as onequot) See also, quotWe Have to do Something. quot See also, the Worst Case Fallacy. Sending the Wrong Message . A dangerous fallacy of logos that attacks a given statement, argument or action, no matter how true or necessary, because it will quotsend the wrong message. quot In effect, those who use this fallacy are openly confessing to fraud and admitting that the truth will destroy the fragile web of illusion that has been created by their lies. P. ej. quotActually, were losing the war against drugs hands down, but if we publicly admit it well be sending the wrong message. quot See also, quotMala Fides. quot Shifting the Burden of Proof . A classic fallacy of logos that challenges an opponent to disprove a claim rather than asking the person making the claim to defend his/her own argument. P. ej. quotThese days space-aliens are everywhere among us, masquerading as true humans, even right here on campus I dare you prove it isnt so See You cant You admit it That means what I say has to be true. Most probably, youre one of themquot See also, Argument from Ignorance. The Shopping Hungry Fallacy . A fallacy of pathos, a variety of Playing on Emotions, making stupid but important decisions (or being prompted, manipulated or forced to quotfreelyquot take public or private decisions that may be later regretted but are most often difficult to reverse) quotin the heat of the moment, quot when under the influence of strong emotion (hunger, fear, lust, anger, sadness, regret, fatigue, even joy, love or happiness). P. ej. Trevor Noah, current (2016) host of the Daily Show on American television attributes approval of draconian measures of the Patriot Act and the creation of the U. S. Department of Homeland Security to Americas quotshopping hungryquot immediately after 9/11. See also quotWe Have to Do Something. quot The Simpletons Fallacy: (Or, The Good Simpleton Fallacy): A corrupt fallacy of logos, described in an undated quote from science writer Isaac Asimov as quot T he false notion that democracy means that my ignorance is just as good as your knowledge. quot The name of this fallacy is borrowed from Walter M. Miller Jr. s classic (1960) post-apocalyptic novel, A Canticle for Leibowitz . in which in the centuries after a nuclear holocaust knowledge and learning are so despised that quotGood Simpletonquot becomes the standard form of interpersonal salutation. This fallacy is alleged to have had a great deal to do with the outcome of the 2016 US presidential election. See also quotJust Plain Folks, quot and the quotPlain Truth Fallacy. quot The name quotSimpletons Fallacyquot has also been used to refer to a deceptive technique of argumentation, feigning ignorance to get ones opponent to admit to, explain or overexplain something he or she would rather not discuss. P. ej. quotI see you have a past conviction for Criminal Sodomy. quot I may be a naive simpleton but Im not quite sure what that means in plain English. Please explain to the jury what exactly it was you were convicted of doing. quot The Slippery Slope (also, the Domino Theory): The common fallacy that quotone thing inevitably leads to another. quot E. g. quotIf you two go and drink coffee together one thing will lead to another and next thing you know youll be pregnant and end up spending your life on welfare living in the Projects, quot or quotIf we close Gitmo one thing will lead to another and before you know it armed terrorists will be strolling through our church doors on Sunday morning with suicide beltsquot The Snow Job (also Information Bias): The fallacy of proving a claim by overwhelming an audience with mountains of marginally-relevant facts, numbers, documents, graphs and statistics that look extremely impressive but which they cannot be expected to understand or evaluate. This is a corrupted argument from logos. See also, quotLying with Statistics. quot The opposite of this fallacy is the Plain Truth Fallacy. The Soldiers Honor Fallacy . The ancient fallacy that all who wore a uniform, fought hard and followed orders are worthy of some special honor or glory or are even quotheroes, quot whether they fought for freedom or fought to defend slavery, marched under Grant or Lee, Hitler, Stalin, Eisenhower or McArthur, fought to defend their homes, fought for oil or to spread empire, or even fought against and killed U. S. soldiers. A corrupt argument from ethos (that of a soldier), closely related to the quotFinish the Jobquot fallacy (quotSure, he died for a lie, but he deserves honor because he followed orders and did his job to the endquot). See also quotHeroes All. quot This fallacy was recognized and decisively refuted at the Nuremburg Trials after World War II but remains powerful to this day nonetheless. See also quotBlind Loyalty. quot Related is the State Actor Fallacy . that those who fight and die for a country (America, Russia, Iran, the Third Reich, etc.) are worthy of honor or at least pardonable while those who fight for a non-state actor (abolitionists, guerrillas, freedom-fighters, jihadis) are not and remain quotterroristsquot no matter how noble or vile their cause, until or unless they are adopted by a state after the fact. Star Powe r (also Testimonial, Questionable Authority, Faulty Use of Authority, Eminence-based Practice): In academia, a corrupt argument from ethos in which arguments, standpoints and themes of academic discourse are granted validity or condemned to obscurity solely by whoever the reigning quotstarsquot of the discipline are at the moment, e. g. quotNetwork Theory has been thoroughly criticized and is so last-week. This week everyones into Safe Spaces, Trigger Warnings, and Pierces Theory of Microaggressions. Get with the program. quot (See also, the Bandwagon.) At the popular level this also refers to a corrupt argument from ethos in which popular support for a standpoint or product is established by a well-known or respected figure (e. g. a star athlete or entertainer) who is not an expert and who may have been well paid to make the endorsement (e. g. Olympic gold-medal pole-vaulter Fulano de Tal uses Quick Flush Internet-shouldnt youquot Or, quotMy favorite rock star warns that vaccinations spread cooties, so Im not vaccinating my kidsquot ). Includes other false, meaningless or paid means of associating oneself or ones product or standpoint with the ethos of a famous person or event (e. g. Try Salsa Cabria, the official taco sauce of the Winter Olympics). The Straw Man (also quotThe Straw Personquot quotquotThe Straw Figurequot): The fallacy of setting up a phony, weak, extreme or ridiculous parody of an opponents argument and then proceeding to knock it down or reduce it to absurdity with a rhetorical wave of the hand. P. ej. quotVegetarians say animals have feelings like you and me. Ever seen a cow laugh at a Shakespeare comedy Vegetarianism is nonsensequot Or, quotPro-choicers hate babiesquot Or, quotPro-lifers hate women and want them to spend their lives barefoot, pregnant and chained to the kitchen stovequot This fallacy is only too common in American politics and popular discourse. The Taboo . The fallacy of unilaterally declaring certain arguments, standpoints or actions quotsacrosanctquot and not open to discussion, or arbitrarily taking some emotional tones, logical standpoints or options quotoff the tablequot beforehand. (E. g. quot quotNo, lets no t discuss my sexuality, quot quotDont bring my drinking into this, quot or quotBefore we start, you need to know I wont allow you to play the race card or allow you to attack my arguments by claiming Thats just what Hitler would sayquot) Also applies to discounting or rejecting certain arguments and evidence out of hand because they are quotagainst the Biblequot or other sacred doctrine (See also the A Priori Argument). This fallacy occasionally degenerates into a separate, distracting argument over who gets to define the parameters, tone and taboos of the main argument, though at this point reasoned discourse most often breaks down and the entire affair becomes a naked Argumentun ad Baculum. See also, MYOB, and Tone Policing. Theyre All Crooks . The contemporary fallacy of refusing to get involved in public politics because all politicians and politics are allegedly corrupt, ignoring the fact that if this is so in a democratic country it is precisely because quotdecentquot people like you and I refuse to get involved, leaving the field open to the quotcrooksquot by default. An example of Circular Reasoning. Theyre Not Like Us (also, Stereotyping, Xenophobia. Ethnic Prejudice, Othering): A badly corrupted, discriminatory argument from ethos where facts, arguments, experiences or objections are arbitrarily disregarded, ignored or put down without serious consideration because those involved quotare not like us, quot or quotdont think like us. quot E. g. quotIts OK for Mexicans to earn a buck an hour in the maquiladoras. If it happened here Id call it brutal exploitation and daylight robbery but south of the border, down Mexico way theyre not at all like us. quot Or, quotYou claim that life must be really terrible over there for terrorists to ever think of blowing themselves up with suicide vests just to make a point, but always remember that theyre different from us. They dont think about life and death the same way we do. quot A vicious variety of the Ad Hominem Fallacy, most often applied to non-white or non-Christian populations. A variation of this fallacy is the quotSpeakeequot Fallacy (quotYou speakee da Englishquot), in which an opponents arguments are mocked, ridiculed and dismissed solely because of the speakers alleged or real accent, dialect, or lack of fluency in standard English, e. g. quotHe told me Vee vorkers need to form a younion but I told him to come back when he learns to speak proper English. quot An extreme example of quotTheyre Not Like Usquot is Dehumanization, where opponents are dismissed as mere cockroaches, lice, apes, monkeys, rats, weasels or bloodsucking parasites who have no right to speak at all and probably should be quotsquashed like bugs. quot This fallacy is the quotlogicquot behind genocide and gas ovens. See also quotName Callingquot and quotOlfactory Rhetoric. quot The opposite of this fallacy is the quotPollyanna Principlequot above. The quotThousand Flowersquot Fallacy (also, quotTake names and kick butt. quot): A sophisticated quotArgumentum ad Baculumquot in which free and open discussion and quotbrainstormingquot is temporarily allowed and encouraged (even demanded ) not in order to hear and consider opposing views, but rather to quotsmoke out, quot identify and later punish, fire or liquidate dissenters. The name comes from the Thousand Flowers Period in Chinese history when Communist leader Chairman Mao Tse Tung applied this policy with deadly effect. TINA (There Is No Alternative. Also quotThats an order, quot quotGet over it, quot quotSuck it up, quot quotIt is what it is, quot quotActions have consequences, quot or the quotFait Accompliquot). A very common contemporary extension of the either/or fallacy in which someone in power quashes critical thought by announcing that there is no realistic alternative to a given standpoint, status or action, arbitrarily ruling any and all other options out of bounds, or announcing that a decision has been made and any further discussion is insubordination, disloyalty, disobedience or simply a waste of precious time when theres a job to be done. (See also, quotTabooquot quotFinish the Job. quot) Often a variety of the Argumentum ad Baculum. Tone Policing. A corrupt argument from pathos and delivery, the fallacy of judging the validity of an argument primarily by its emotional tone of delivery, ignoring the reality that a valid fact or argument remains valid whether it is offered calmly and deliberatively or is shouted in a quotshrillquot or even quothystericalquot tone, whether calmly stated in professional, academic language or screamed through a bull-horn and peppered with vulgarity. Conversely, a highly urgent emotional matter is still urgent even if argued coldly and rationally. This fallacy creates a false dichotomy between reason and emotion and thus implicitly favors those who are not personally involved or emotionally invested in an argument, e. g. quotI know youre upset, but I wont discuss it until you calm down, quot or quotId believe what you write were it not for your adolescent use of exclamation points throughout the text. quot Or alternately, quotYou seem to be way too calm about the death of your spouse. Youre under arrest for homicide. Usted tiene derecho a permanecer en silencio. quot Tone Policing is frequent in contemporary discourse of power, particularly in response to discourse of protest. Transfer . (also, Name Dropping) A corrupt argument from ethos, falsely associating a famous or respected person, place or thing with an unrelated standpoint (e. g. putting a picture of the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. on an advertisement for mattresses, using Genghis Khan, a Mongol who hated Chinese, as the name of a Chinese restaurant, or using the Texas flag to sell cars or pickups that were made in Detroit, Kansas City or Kyoto). This fallacy is common in contemporary academia in the form of using a profusion of scholarly-looking citations from respected authorities to lend a false gravitas to otherwise specious ideas or text. See also quotStar Power. quot Tu Quoque (quotYou Do it Tooquot also, Two Wrongs Make a Right): A corrupt argument from ethos, the fallacy of defending a shaky or false standpoint or excusing ones own bad action by pointing out that ones opponents acts, ideology or personal character are also open to question, or are perhaps even worse than ones own. P. ej. quotSure, we may have tortured prisoners and killed kids with drones, but we dont cut off heads off like they doquot Or, quotYou cant stand there and accuse me of corruption You guys are all into politics and you know what you have to do to get reelectedquot Related to the Red Herring and to the Ad Hominem Argument. Two Truths ( also, Compartmentalization Epistemically Closed Systems): A fallacy of logos and ethos, first formally described in medieval times but still common today, holding that there exists one quottruthquot in a given system (e. g. science, work or school) and simultaneously a different, contradictory but equally true quottruthquot in a different epistemic system, context or discourse community (e. g. church or home). This can lead to a situation of stable cognitive dissonance where, as UC Irvine scholar Dr. Carter T. Butts describes it (2016), quotI know but dont believe, quot making rational discussion difficult or impossible. Venting (also, Letting off Steam) : In the Venting Fallacy a person argues that her/his words are or ought to be exempt from criticism or consequence because s/he was quotonly venting, quot even though this very admission implies that the one quotventingquot was, at long last, freely expressing his/her true, heartfelt and uncensored opinion about the matter in question. This same fallacy applies to minimizing, denying the significance of or excusing other forms of frank, unguarded or uninhibited offensive expression as mere quot Locker-room Talk, quot quot Alpha-male Speech quot or nothing but cute, adorable quot Bad-boy Talk. quot See also, the Affective Fallacy. We Have to Do Something . (also, the Placebo Effect quotSecurity Theaterquot). The dangerous contemporary fallacy that when quotPeople are scared / People are angry / People are fed up / People are hurting / People want changequot it becomes necessary to do something, anything . at once even if it is an overreaction, is a completely ineffective, inert placebo, or actually makes the situation worse, rather than quotjust sitting there doing nothing. quot (E. g. quotBanning air passengers from carrying ham sandwiches onto the plane and making parents take off their newborn infants tiny pink baby-shoes probably does nothing to deter potential hijackers, but people are scared and we have to do something to respond to this crisisquot) This is a badly corrupted argument from pathos. (See also quotScare Tactic. quot) Where theres Smoke, theres Fire (also Hasty Conclusion Jumping to a Conclusion). The dangerous fallacy of drawing a snap conclusion and/or taking action without sufficient evidence. P. ej. Captain The guy sitting next to me in coach has a dark skin and is reading a book in some funny language all full of weird squiggles like and . It must be Arabic Get him off the plane before he blows us all to kingdom come A variety of the Just in Case fallacy. The opposite of this fallacy is the quotParalysis of Analysis. quotThe Wisdom of the Crowd (also, The Magic of the Market the Wikipedia Fallacy). A very common contemporary fallacy that individuals may be wrong but quotthe crowdquot or quotthe marketquot is infallible, ignoring historic examples like witch-burning, lynching, and the market crash of 2008. This fallacy is why most colleges and universities ban students from using Wikipedia as a serious reference work. The Worst-Case Fallacy (also, quotJust in casequot quotWe cant afford to take chances. quot): A pessimistic fallacy by which ones reasoning is based on an improbable, far-fetched or even completely imaginary worst-case scenario rather than on reality. This plays on pathos (fear) rather than reason. P. ej. quotWhat if armed terrorists were to attack your county grain elevator tomorrow morning at dawn Are you ready to fight back Better stock up on assault rifles and ammunition today, just in casequot The opposite of this is the Positive Thinking Fallacy. The Worst Case Negates the Bad (also, Be Grateful for What Youve Got): The logical fallacy that a bad situation stops being so bad because it could be far worse, or because someone, somewhere has it even worse. P. ej. quotI cried because I had no shoes, until I saw someone who had no feet. quot Or, quotYoure protesting because you earn only 7.25 an hour You could be out on the street I happen to know there are people in Uttar Pradesh who are doing the very same work youre doing for one tenth of what youre making, and theyre pathetically glad just to have work at all. You need to shut up, put down that picket sign, get back to work and thank us each and every day for giving you a jobquot Zero Tolerance (also, Zero Risk Bias, Broken Windows Policing, Disproportionate Response, Even One is Too Many, Judenrein). The contemporary fallacy of declaring an quotemergencyquot and promising to devote unlimited resources to stamp out a limited, insignificant or even nonexistent problem. P. ej. quotI just read about an actual case of cannibalism somewhere in this country. Thats disgusting, and even one case is way, way too many We need a Federal Taskforce against Cannibalism with a million-dollar budget and offices in every state, a national SCAN program in all the grade schools (Stop Cannibalism in America Now), and an automatic double death penalty for cannibals in other words, zero tolerance for cannibalism in this countryquot This is a corrupt and cynical argument from pathos, almost always politically driven, a particularly sinister variety of the quotWe Have to do Somethingquot fallacy. See also, quotPlaying on Emotions, quot quotRed Herring, quot and also the quotBig Lie Technique. quot OW 7/06 with thanks to the late Susan Spence. Latest revision 11/16, with special thanks to Business Insider. to Bradley Steffens. to Danelle M. Pecht, Marc Lawson, to Dr. William Lorimer, Dr. Carter T. Butts, and to the all other readers who suggested corrections, additions and clarifications. 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By the way, if you do see an ad after scanning one of our QR codes, the scanning app that youre using put it there. Download, Print Or Email Your QR Codes Once youve created your QR Codes you can download them as PNG image files, print them as sheets of stickers, or email them to yourself or someone else. Just choose the Output Type you need. Custom QR Code Printed Products Generate your own QR Code and then you and your code are sent to the Zazzle print-on-demand website to add your QR code to a t-shirt, a coffee cup, a hat, business cards, stickers, and more - all ready for immediate purchase, printing and delivery direct to your door. QR Code Books Find out how to incorporate QR codes into your business marketing for effective offline-to-online engagement of mobile users: QR Codes For Dummies QR Codes Mobile Marketing For Small Business Scan Me: Everybodys Guide To QR Codes Mobile Marketing For Dummies Mobile Marketing: 101 Ideas For Small Business Go Mobile: Strategies to Grow Your Business The Mobile Marketing Handbook QR Code Scanning Apps And Software Different countries, different phone networks and different phone manufacturers have embraced QR Codes to varying degrees and in different ways. Your phone may already have it pre-installed, but if not youll need to install some QR Code Scanning Phone Apps Software .
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